Measuring Governance to Optimize Nonprofit Impact

Works Cited

The complete reference list supporting the meta-analysis, drawn from sector surveys, peer-reviewed literature, federal statistics, and practitioner reporting.

Read the meta-analysis

Anthropic. (2026). Large language model. https://claude.ai
Axios. (2026, May 12). Nonprofits navigate federal funding survey. https://www.axios.com/2026/05/12/nonprofits-federal-funding-survey
Barron’s. (2026, May 12). U.S. budget surplus narrows as tax refunds rise. https://www.barrons.com/articles/us-budget-surplus-tax-refunds-revenue-trump-eddf745f
Bean, A. (2025, November 26). Nonprofit burnout: Why it persists and how to break the cycle. Givebutter. https://givebutter.com/blog/nonprofit-burnout-statistics
Board.Dev & Dell Technologies. (2026, May). Building the leadership nonprofits need to make AI work. https://board.dev/dell-insights-report-2/
BoardSource. (2021). Leading with intent: BoardSource index of nonprofit board practices. BoardSource. https://leadingwithintent.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/2021-Leading-with-Intent-Report.pdf
BoardSource. (2021). Reviewing the state of diversity, equity, and inclusion on nonprofit boards. BoardSource.
BoardSource. (2023). Leading with intent: 2023 databook. https://updates-leadingwithintent-org.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/LWI_2023_Databook.pdf
Bruni-Bossio, V., & Kaczur, M. (2022). The power-structure model of non-profit governance. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 30(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/corg.12417
Bureau of Economic Analysis. (2025). Nonprofit institutions serving households as a share of GDP. U.S. Department of Commerce.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024). Nonprofits: A look at national trends in establishment size and employment. Monthly Labor Review. U.S. Department of Labor.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024). Nonprofits accounted for 12.8 million jobs, 9.9 percent of private-sector employment, in 2022. TED: The Economics Daily.
Buteau, E., Smith Arrillaga, E., Grundhoefer, S., & Im, C. (2026). A sector in crisis: How U.S. nonprofits and foundations are responding to threats. Center for Effective Philanthropy. https://cep.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/CEP_A_Sector_in_Crisis_FNL.pdf
Candid. (2025). Money in the U.S. social sector: Key facts and figures. https://candid.org/impact-insights/us-social-sector/
Center for Effective Philanthropy. (2026). New CEP study reveals a nonprofit sector in crisis [Press release]. https://cep.org/news/press-releases/new-cep-study-reveals-a-nonprofit-sector-in-crisis/
Clerkin, C., Diomande, M., & Koob, A. (2024). The state of diversity in the U.S. nonprofit sector. Candid. https://doi.org/10.15868/socialsector.43685
Cooper Coleman. (n.d.). The state of nonprofit staff retention has been poor for years. https://www.coopercoleman.com/post/the-state-of-nonprofit-staff-retention-has-been-poor-for-years
Council of Nonprofits. (n.d.). Interview: Dr. Elisha Smith Arrillaga on the Center for Effective Philanthropy’s new report on the state of nonprofits. https://www.councilofnonprofits.org/articles/interview-dr-elisha-smith-arrillaga-center-effective-philanthropys-new-report-state
Counts, A. (2020). Spotting and fixing dysfunctional nonprofit boards. Stanford Social Innovation Review.
DataArts. (2025). National trends in arts and culture nonprofit finances [Survey report].
Dataintelo. (n.d.). Global nonprofit consulting service market [Market report]. https://dataintelo.com/report/global-nonprofit-consulting-service-market
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160.
Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. (2025). How big is the nonprofit sector? Macro Minute. https://www.richmondfed.org/research/national_economy/macro_minute/2025/how_big_is_the_nonprofit_sector
Global Market Statistics. (n.d.). Nonprofit consulting service market [Market report]. https://www.globalmarketstatistics.com/market-reports/nonprofit-consulting-service-market-11282
Guo, C., & Musso, J. (2007). Representation in nonprofit and voluntary organizations: A conceptual framework. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 36(2), 308–326.
Harrington, H. J. (1999). Quoted in CIO magazine (September 1999, p. 19).
Im, C., Grundhoefer, S., & Smith Arrillaga, E. (2024). State of nonprofits 2024: What funders need to know. Center for Effective Philanthropy. https://cep.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/NVP_State-of-Nonprofits_2024.pdf
Independent Sector. (2025). Health of the U.S. nonprofit sector: Annual review. https://healthysector.org/
Indiana University Lilly Family School of Philanthropy. (2023). What Americans think about philanthropy and nonprofits. https://scholarworks.indianapolis.iu.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/b5904a8a-5081-42cd-bd44-56740b98fb67/content
Inside Philanthropy. (n.d.). Can philanthropy deliver on Americans’ desire for disruption? https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/home/can-philanthropy-deliver-on-americans-desire-for-disruption
Johnson Center at Grand Valley State University. (2025). 11 trends in philanthropy for 2025. https://johnsoncenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/11-trends-in-philanthropy-for-2025.pdf
Johnson Center at Grand Valley State University. (2026). Public trust in transition. Johnson Center.
Johnson Center at Grand Valley State University. (n.d.). The nonprofit workforce is in crisis [Blog post]. https://johnsoncenter.org/blog/the-nonprofit-workforce-is-in-crisis/
Larcker, D., & Tayan, B. (2015). 2015 survey on board of directors of nonprofit organizations. Stanford Graduate School of Business, Rock Center for Corporate Governance.
Merritt, D. M. (2013). Nonprofit leadership: A study of governance changes over time. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University.
Molk, P., & Sokol, D. D. (2020). The challenges of nonprofit governance. Boston College Law Review, 61(5), 1497–1553.
Mostari. (n.d.). Can your governance hold the weight of a crisis? Five board models. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/can-your-governance-hold-weight-crisis-five-board-models-mostari-mee8c
Nonprofit Finance Fund. (2025). State of the nonprofit sector survey. https://nff.org/state-of-the-nonprofit-sector-survey/2025-state-of-the-survey-nonprofit-sector-survey/
Nonprofit HR. (2024). 2024 nonprofit talent retention practices survey. Nonprofit HR.
Nonprofit.ist. (n.d.). Nonprofit consultant survey. https://www.nonprofit.ist/nonprofitconsultantsurvey
NonprofitPro. (n.d.). 2024 nonprofit leadership survey [Trade publication report]. https://nonprofitpro.tradepub.com/?p=w_nonp36
NonprofitPro. (n.d.). The pressure on nonprofits has never been higher. Here’s how to survive what’s coming. https://www.nonprofitpro.com/post/the-pressure-on-nonprofits-has-never-been-higher-heres-how-to-survive-whats-coming/
NonprofitPro. (n.d.). What Americans think about nonprofits, per new study. https://www.nonprofitpro.com/article/what-americans-think-about-nonprofits-per-new-study/
NPR. (2026, May 12). Survey warns that some nonprofits are in danger of closing due to funding cuts. https://www.npr.org/2026/05/12/nx-s1-5806032/survey-warns-that-some-nonprofits-are-in-danger-of-closing-due-to-funding-cuts
OpenAI. (2026). ChatGPT [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com/
Peppiatt, J. (n.d.). Searching for optimal governance on the nonprofit board: Dynamic resource constraints and a rejection of board bifurcation. NYU Wagner Review of Social Change Initiatives. https://socialchangenyu.com/review/searching-for-optimal-governance-on-the-nonprofit-board-dynamic-resource-constraints-and-a-rejection-of-board-bifurcation
Pew Research Center. (2024). Public trust in government: 1958–2024. Pew Research Center.
Pew Research Center. (2025). Public trust in government: 1958–2025. Pew Research Center.
Provan, K. G. (1980). Board power and organizational effectiveness among human service agencies. Academy of Management Journal, 23(2), 221–236.
Rae, A. (2026, April 30). Progressive philanthropy is failing communities. Here’s what real leadership looks like. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/aparnarae/2026/04/30/progressive-philanthropy-is-failing-communities-heres-what-real-leadership-looks-like/
Ransohoff, N. (n.d.). The third wave of American philanthropy [Substack newsletter]. https://nanransohoff.substack.com/p/the-third-wave-of-american-philanthropy
Salesforce. (2025). Nonprofit trends report (7th ed.). https://www.salesforce.com/en-us/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2025/05/s-org-7th-edition-nonprofit-trends-report-2025.pdf
Strub, C. (2020, February 10). Nonprofit HR. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisstrub/2020/02/10/nonprofithr/
The Business Research Insights. (n.d.). Nonprofit consulting service market [Market report]. https://www.businessresearchinsights.com/market-reports/nonprofit-consulting-service-market-117971
The Chronicle of Philanthropy. (n.d.). Americans know little about charities and very few think nonprofits can solve problems, poll finds. https://www.philanthropy.com/news/americans-know-little-about-charities-and-very-few-think-nonprofits-can-solve-problems-poll-finds/
Time. (2026, April 16). Philanthropy must choose courage over caution. https://time.com/article/2026/04/16/philanthropy-must-choose-courage-over-caution/
Urban Institute. (2025). Nonprofit sector responses to federal funding changes. Urban Institute.
Urban Institute. (2026, April 30). The nonprofit workforce faces compounding challenges. What does that mean for communities? https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/nonprofit-workforce-faces-compounding-challenges-what-does-mean-communities
Urban Institute. (n.d.). Nonprofit research collaborative special report: Engaging board members in fundraising. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/nonprofit-research-collaborative-special-report-engaging-board-members-fundraising
Velamoor, M., & Buder, J. (2026). The $1.5 billion dilemma [LinkedIn series]. LinkedIn.

The meta-analysis

Every citation above supports one finding.

Read the meta-analysis on measuring governance to optimize nonprofit impact.

Read the meta-analysis